CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN GHANA: ARE WE GETTING IT RIGHT?

An Overview:

Pause for a moment and reflect on this question: Are companies with Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) imparting our communities as expected? This question partially occupied my mind during a special trip in Ghana. This piece expounds on the mirage and reality dichotomy of CSR in Ghana.

With businesses focusing on making profits, CSR has not been a popular concern among companies until recently. The concept of CSR can be seen as a management framework and mechanism for making a contribution to sustainable development. However, it is possible to achieve a high level of CSR without contributing to sustainable development. In the face of the huge revenue generated by companies that are into mining, telecommunication etc, there is a growing concern amongst cross section of Ghanaians, including incessant pressure from NGOs and civil society groups on the need for these companies to adopt effective CSR policies and commit more resources to the sustainable development of communities in which they operate and the country as a whole.

Despite the government’s continual effort towards providing the basic needs of its people, it is still not devoid of pressure from other sectors of the economy such as education, health, ICT, water and sanitation, employment and so forth. As a result of the pressure and competition that exist among these sectors, companies step in to pay their quota towards development of the nation. As a fact, a school of thought asserts that companies with CSR activities play an important role as agent of change whose immense contribution to improved living standards cannot be over-emphasised. 

 

It must be said that the contributions of companies to CSR in Ghana are worth noting. Community development efforts by these companies are focused on human resource development, infrastructure provision, economic empowerment, natural resources, cultural heritage, sports etc. To mention a few examples, Newmont Ahafo Development Foundation (NADeF) has invested in a variety of projects under education, health, water and sanitation, ICT, economic empowerment, sports and others in the Ahafo communities including Adrobaa, Afrisipakrom, Gyedu, Kenyasi No. 1, Kenyasi No. 2, Ntotroso, Susuanso, Terchire, Wamahinso and Yamfo. Also, the MTN Ghana Foundation has invested in a variety of education, health and economic empowerment projects in the country. All these contributions or projects are in the name of CSR. 

While it is obvious to predict the expected impacts of these projects in terms of school enrollment, reading spaces, security, health care delivery, employment to name a few; a deep question emerges. Thus, are the intended beneficiaries experiencing these impacts as expected? In seeking answers to the question, the researcher took a trip to some communities with CSR projects. Interestingly, providers of these projects and their intended beneficiaries were not on the same page as responses differ from each other. The findings indicated that the providers and intended beneficiaries sounded positive and negative respectively. An enquiry into the negative responses revealed that community participation was not effective with regards to the CSR projects. Thus, the community was not fully involved in the project implementation. A sad observation made from the trip was that some of the completed projects were abandoned by the intended beneficiaries.

The crux of the above contention is addressed to these companies with CSR activities. Do these companies consider the acceptability, user satisfaction, durability and sustainability of projects before and after their implementation?

The Way Forward:

In the quest to propose appropriate policies and measures to promote effective CSR for leveraging sustainable development in communities and Ghana at large, there is the need to consider the following:

First and foremost, the legislative framework in Ghana is silent on CSR towards the communities in which companies operate. In fact, there is no national policy framework that guides the implementation of CSR in Ghana and thus companies are therefore not bound by law to implement CSR activities in the country. This implies that companies in Ghana undertake CSR activities more in response to moral convictions rather than legal obligations. A review of other country’s experience such as Australia and South Africa show that CSR is incorporated in their legislative framework. It is therefore expedient if Ghana as a country adopts and formulate policies and legal frameworks that solely ensure the implementation of CSR programmes or activities of companies within their areas of operations. Also, the Government of Ghana should set the agenda for social responsibility by the way of laws and regulations that will allow companies to conduct themselves responsibly through CSR.

Moreover, in line with the above, firms’ CSR should ensure popular participation in project implementation. Best practices have it that people who are affected by particular development projects should be involved as much as possible in all stages of the implementation to ensure that detailed information on social condition and needs of the people is obtained. Popular participation helps to encourage a sense of involvement and commitment to the project by the people.

There is no doubt that CSR activities have not played an ameliorative role in the context of significant social disruption and socio-economic development challenges in the wake of the upsurge of industrial growth. However, there is still room for improvement. It is hoped that if the recommendations suggested are adopted and followed through, CSR activities will put smiles on the faces of intended beneficiaries.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AS A WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT TOOL

Introduction:

Water has always been vital to the health, safety, and socio-economic development of man. Its availability, accessibility and quality make a tremendous difference in life. The multi­sectoral nature of the operation and maintenance of water facilities requires a collaborative approach that involves key stakeholders in identifying constraints and in developing framework for action. Thus, given the complexities that often surround the delivery of water supply to communities, the involvement of users or communities in the planning and management of services is urgently needed. Community participation has of recent assumed an increasingly key role in water management especially operation and maintenance of water facilities. It has been argued that professionals in the water sector are also realizing that the operation and maintenance is not just a technical issue. It also encompasses social, gender, economic, institutional, political, managerial and environmental aspects.

The United Nations (1981) defined community participation as the process of creating opportunities to enable all members of a community to keenly contribute to and manipulate the development process and to share equitably in the fruits of development. This definition of the United Nation stems from the definition of good governance which states that, “All men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests”. According to Stretton (1978), community participation is of great importance due to the following reasons:

• Real needs and priorities are identified, values in conflict are weighed and forgotten factors are identified. Community participation in water facility management give an opportunity to solicit the real needs and priorities of the community because what technocrats sometimes impose on a community as their real need and priorities are not compatible with what the community consider.

• Greater self-determination in resolving problems and meeting needs is allowed, practical implications of a policy are grasped and a sense of involvement and commitment to the project is encouraged. Here, people consider community problems as their own and that effort to resolve it means an improvement in their general well-being and thus they feel involved in issues concerning their welfare.

Emerging Issues in Sustainable Water Provision:

The provision of rural water over the past decades has failed in areas of operation and management. This has led to the unsustainable water projects in most areas particularly the broken down of boreholes and hand dug wells in most communities in Ghana. This situation emanated because the provision of such facilities was carried out at the regional and district levels without the involvement of the local people. The rural communities therefore viewed the provided facilities as an asset for the government and thus showed less concern about their operation and management (Koestler, 2009).

Per the researcher’s observation, community participation in the form of some token of financial commitment, taking part in decision making, and regular monitoring and maintenance of projects after completion has been widely acclaimed as an effective way of supporting the efforts of government and NGOs. This is so because the huge financial commitment from government and NGOs as well as the technical support would not be in vain when the people feel part of the course. This would ensure sustainability of the project through and longitivity. If this is done, the battle of ensuring water for all will be a promising one. 

 

Participation of beneficiaries in project planning, execution and management is very important in ensuring projects’ sustainability. This is because more often than not, the operational responsibility of completed projects is left in the hands of people who either are less efficient or cannot manage or sustain the projects (Karl, 2000). This eventually leads to less inspiration to maintain the minimum level of performance since they are not involved much and hence do not see the project as their own. Experience has shown that, where local participation is incorporated projects lasts longer, since beneficiaries see the projects as their own and hence take very good care of them.

Various factors may contribute to the difficulty in developing sustainable water supply systems.  For instance, rural communities are likely to be less capable of achieving economies of scale in water supply and treatment (State of Ceará, 2009). At the same time, households and businesses in rural areas may have more limited capacity than wealthier urbanites to raise the capital needed for water infrastructure, or they may lack the technical expertise needed to operate and maintain water systems. 

  

In rural areas that are arid or subject to hydrologic  variability, reliable water supply systems may require more energy intensive infrastructure (e.g. to access and deliver distant surface or groundwater sources or  to allow for multi-season or multi-year storage), which can add  to the financial and technical difficulties facing these communities. With the help of foreign donors, many attempts have been made to provide safe drinking water supplies to communities throughout the developing world. Unfortunately, many of these have failed. For example, it has been estimated  that the  hand pump, which provides nearly half of the protected water supplies for Africa’s rural population, has an estimated functionality rate of approximately 66% (RSWN 2010). 

                

A closer look at the issue revealed that communities where such systems had been installed lacked a sense of ownership for the infrastructure and its service. As a result, when they broke down the community did not see the problem as being theirs.  The key issues that emerged from the failure of these centralized systems have dominated the water and sanitation sector for the past three decades. 

Evolving  from  above, it can be concluded that capacity building is an essential component to  the  sustainability framework, but it is not a stand-alone community characteristic; rather it draws upon the others to create an atmosphere conducive to continuous learning and improvement. Understanding  the  value  of  safe  water,  and  reiterating  this fact, is important for individuals to continue reaping  the benefits  of the program  (deWilde et al. 2008). Therefore, sustainability cannot be expected unless the program incorporates community training sessions and the community members are both receptive and willing to train others.

The Way Forward:

Sustainable water provision over the past decades has failed in areas of operation and maintenance. This has led to abandoned water projects in most areas particularly the broken down of boreholes and hand dug wells in most communities in Ghana. This situation usually emanates because the provision of such facilities was carried out at the regional and district levels without the involvement of the local people. Hence, communities therefore viewed the provided facilities as being for the government and thus show less concern about their operation and maintenance.

Recently, community participation in the form of some token of financial commitment, taking part in decision making, and regular monitoring and maintenance of projects after completion has been widely acclaimed as an effective way of supporting the efforts of government and NGO. This is so because the huge financial commitment from government and NGOs as well as the technical support would not be in vain when the people feel part of the course. This would, one way or the other, ensure sustainability of water facilities. 

The issue of safe water cannot be over emphasized so far as the development of a country is concerned. A potable water supply reduced exposure to waterborne pathogens, and its sustainability relies in large part on the behavioural, social, and institutional factors of the recipient community. These are summarized as follows:

• Involving the local people is very crucial in project sustainability. Experiences from some districts in Ghana have shown that community-managed projects performed better than the state-managed systems. Thus, to enhance sustainability the community or beneficiaries should be involved in all aspects of project planning, implementation, as well as its operation and maintenance. Facilities are well maintained through community ownership and the demand-responsive approach to service delivery rather supply-oriented approach.

• Sustainability of projects is also affected by insufficient skilled manpower. That is, institutions which manage potable water facilities at the local level should be provided with adequate training to ensure a successful management, operation and maintenance of facilities;

• Cost recovery systems must be properly ensured to raise adequate funds towards operation and maintenance of facilities; and

• The provision of potable water alone is not adequate to guarantee the health of people. There is therefore the need to ensure proper sanitation and hygienic conditions at water points.

 

POPULATION DYNAMICS AND LAND USE: A LESSON FOR GHANA.

1.1 Introduction:

Global land use has significantly changed in the past decades. “Historically, the driving force for most land use changes is population growth although there are several interacting factors involved” (Lambin et al., 2001, 2003). A populated area consists of  good variety of independent activities and the choice of location of these activities are normally made after an assessment of the relative advantages of various locations for the performance of the activities in question, given the general framework and knowledge prevailing. This phenomenon is unfolding in different forms and intensities in different cities such as Lagos, Nigeria; Francistown, Botswana; and Manila, Philippines (UNCHS, 2006). This is a result of variations in population growth, land tenure systems, levels of technology and planning regulations. Developments in Ghana is experiencing similar growth pressures with development characterized by multi-purpose land uses for residential, commercial, agricultural, civic and culture. The objective of this piece is to look at the relationship between population changes and land use.
1.2 An Overview of Population and Land Use Relationship:

From 1990 to the year 2020, a total of approximately 14 million hectares of land (approx. 475,000 ha/yr.) in developing countries will be converted for urban purposes (Queen et al, 2003). The environmental implications of population processes have been most carefully examined within the context of developing countries.  This focus can be partially justified by the fact that much of the population within some of these regions continue to rely upon local environmental resources for subsistence. Fulfilling the resource requirements of a growing population ultimately requires some form of land-use change, be it to provide for the expansion of food production through forest clearing, to intensify production on already cultivated land, or to develop the infrastructure necessary to support increasing human numbers.  As such, it is clear that population is associated with changes in land use, although political forces, cultural values, institutional histories, and other mediating factors ultimately shape the association within any particular geographic context.

In Rwanda, high population densities have been linked to the conversion of marginal lands, such as steep hillsides, to agricultural use (May, 1995).  Similar conclusions have been reached in Zaire, DR Congo (Shapiro, 1995).  The influence of mediating factors on the association between population and land use change is evident in Honduras, where research suggests that environmental destruction is due more to inequality of resource distribution and patterns of economic development than to population pressures per se (DeWalt et al. 1993). Demonstrating the influence of political forces, government sponsored transmigration projects have resulted in the deforestation of at least 750,000 hectares per year in Indonesia (Fearnside, 1997).  Finally, in South America, a mixture of policy, poverty, and demographic pressures has been found responsible for much of the deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (Moran, 1992).

A study by United States’ Department of Commerce, in the California portion of the Mojave Desert encompassing approximately 7,400,000 hectares with over 450,000 people, on human dimensions of land-use change in 2001 reviews that human population (increasing from nearly 70,000 in 1970 to over 300,000 in 1990) represents a key driver of environmental change within the area. The study demonstrates that the increased habitat pressures brought to bear upon the natural landscape as a result of population growth, densities, and related development patterns.  In particular, higher density development implies significantly more habitat conflict.

The European Union Population and Land Use Journal, indicates that “recent decades have seen the closure of many farms and the loss of 2 million jobs in rural areas. This has significantly altered the pattern of population distribution. It has been calculated that the combined effect of urbanization and mobility in Europe’s most densely populated countries causes built-up areas to increase by 2% every 10 years”. With continuing proliferation of human influences on landscapes, there is mounting incentive to undertake quantification of relationships between spatial patterns of human populations and vegetation. Annually, population growth adds 78,000,000 more people to the planet while 27,000,000 tons of topsoil is lost (Cascade Mountain Institute, 2013). 

An evidence from both Thailand and China indicates that the number of household units may be a more important determinant of land use than the number of people per se (Entwisle 2001). This result seems plausible because the number of household units may drive the actual micro-level patterns of consumption more closely than the number of people. To the extent households are the main consumers of vegetative resources, particularly in the form of fuel wood and fodder, greater numbers of households should result in decreased land devoted to vegetation. Thus at the local community level, change in the number of households may have a stronger influence on changes in land use than change in the number of people.

1.3 A Case Study of Ghana:

As with many African countries, Ghana’s population is growing fast. The results of the 2010 Population and Housing Census (PHC) showed that the total population of Ghana is 24,658,823. The results indicated that Ghana’s population increased by 30.4 percent over the 2000 population figure of 18,912,079. The recorded annual intercensal growth rate in 2010 was 2.5 percent as against 2.7 percent recorded in 2000. This is lower than the rate for West Africa (2.9%), but higher than the global rate (1.5%). It also showed an increase in population density from 79 people per square km in 2000 to 103 per square km in 2010.

Interestingly, migration has caused some communities to grow at double the rate of other towns and cities. Such growth is mostly due to the communities’ favourable location within the transport network and its economic importance. Other considerations in the growth rate of Ghana relates to the internal growth of cities resulting from high birth rates. Population is not evenly distributed spatially anywhere. While there are pockets of heavy concentrations, there are equally vast lands which are sparsely populated or largely uninhabited. A number of factors account for this and they include climatic, vegetational cover and topographical factors which primarily determine the availability of habitable land, water and fertile soils. These factors are affected by human decisions and actions which sometimes apportion land for different uses, such as natural reserves, industrial use, parks and gardens etc. While the natural environment presents challenges and opportunities for human habitation, it is the human population that ultimately determines which place they would finally settle, based on their level of technology and the decisions they make.

In Ghana, the natural environment has, to an appreciable extent, affected the spatial location of people. For example, the Akwapim and Kwahu topographical landscape has posed challenges and physical barriers to the creation of settlements. Road network, especially feeder roads, becomes unmotorable during rainy seasons on the Akwapim and Kwahu ridges. This condition tends to prohibit frequent migration of people to these ridges for permanent habitation. At the same time, the construction of the Akosombo dam and the subsequent creation of the Volta Lake, for example, displaced and relocated a sizeable population that originally was living along the Volta River. Similarly, natural disasters affect the pattern of population distribution. The outbreak of diseases could affect population distribution, as in the case of the onchocerciasis zone in the middle belt along the Black Volta basin and the prevalence of river blindness, sleeping sickness brought about by the black fly. Although efforts have been done to help curb these environmentally related diseases (Taylor et al, 2009), however the areas noted for onchocerciasis have not attracted large populations to take advantage of the vast lands for agricultural activities.

Historically, population distribution has followed the spatial pattern of ethnic groupings which dates back to the period before colonisation, especially during the slave trade era, when the location of particular ethnic groups, to some extent, determined their source of protection. Following colonisation and subsequent development of the coastal ports and harbours as well as the forest belt, the northern territories, now made up of Northern, Upper East and Upper West, became a major source of labour for the forest agricultural belt and key mining centres down south. A major feature of the population distribution trends in Ghana is the active conversion of subsistence agricultural holdings into housing estates, industrial estates, infrastructure, schools, offices, shops, recreational grounds and related urban uses. Clearly, the spatial population distribution has over the years had relevant implications for spatial development (land use) and vice-versa.
1.3.1 Key Causes and Implication:

The continuous change in land use of areas is an utmost concern of planners and decision-makers. These changes come about as a result of rapid increase in population and the ever increasing demand on land which poses a great deal of challenge to existing land use. The unplanned expansion of areas and encroachment by people for various purposes also contribute to land use changes. Most developers do not acquire permits to change the use of a property in a designated zone. In Ghana, authorities recognize these changes when adverse effects have been created and much cannot be done to mitigate them. It is undeniable that the transformation is initiated by the market forces of demand and supply and evidence point to the fact that if authorities do not take into consideration this obvious development of rural and urban areas, then the invasion of commercial land uses rate will rapidly reduce the residential land use in areas and eventually lead to the creation of an unprecedented commercial centre. The effects of land use change culminate in high cost of a plot of land and multiple selling of a piece of land and development of unauthorised structures, slums and squatter settlements.

1.4 The Way Forward:

Based on the above literature, the following recommendations have been put forth to help make population and land use contribute to the development of Ghana.

• Coordination and Collaboration of Land Use Planning Stakeholders

Institutions such as Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD), Building Inspectorate Division and Finance Department play key roles in the management of physical development and hence the need for an enhanced coordination. TCPD, even though is responsible for physical planning, should as well take special interest in the implementation of the plans. There is the need for these institutions to be brought to function together under one platform to ensure that the implementations of plans are enforced as expected. It can be inferred that physical development is not an institution’s business but a whole array of actors with each having its own interests. Thus, any effort to make it better requires an active involvement of these institutions collaborating with each other. More so, the capacity of the institutions needs to be given the necessary boost to make them function effectively.

• Revision of Existing Planning Scheme

It is quite evident that, the changing pattern of land use will always occur at a point of population growth. There is therefore the need to review existing planning schemes and make appropriate allocations for emerging land uses. The revision must allocate alternative sites for the provision of community facilities like market, roads, schools, open space to enhance the modus vivendi of the people. A designated commercial corridors and parking areas will help solve congestion problem especially in the urban areas. Again, designated funeral grounds as well as public recreational grounds and play grounds need to be rectified for balance physical development. This can help solve frequent blocking of roads for funeral ceremonies.

• Effective Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms

As development proceeds, an effective monitoring and evaluation ‘follow up mechanisms’ must be done by the Building Inspectorate Division together with the Town and Country Planning Department to ensure early detection of unauthorised developments. Also, community development watchdog units must be established with authorization to direct orderly development in various communities.

• Continuous Public Education on Physical Development

The TCPD should engage in a continuous and intensive public education on the processes involved in carrying out physical development. Stakeholders especially the traditional authorities and developers should be sensitized on how to play their roles effectively to ensure orderly physical development. It is believed that a continuous and intensive public education can go a long way to preclude unauthorised development.

•  Intensify Education on Family Planning

Education about family planning must be made common. This is one of the most key measures to check the rapid population growth. The Family Planning Campaign should be a community movement instead of national campaign. People must be made aware of the different methods of birth control. Thus, the awareness and education of family planning among the people can help to increase the mean age of marriage, increase the knowledge about family planning methods and family welfare measures to control births, reduce the rapidity of child birth and thereby reduce the birth rate.

Reference:

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Dattatri, G. R. (1994). Urban Land Management in India: Some Critical Issues. UMP Asia Occasional Paper No. 10 October 1994.

Entwisle, B. (2001). “Population and Land Use in Nang Rong, Thailand.” Paper presented at the Population Association of America Annual Meetings, Washington, D.C. March 29 -31.

Fearnside, P.M. (1997). “Transmigration in Indonesia: Lessons from its Environmental and Social Impacts,” Environmental Management, Vol. 21, No. 4: 553-570.

Ghana Statistical Service (2012). 2010 Population and Housing Census of Ghana. Accra, Ghana Statistical Service.

Lambin, E.F., H.J. Geist, and E. Lepers (2003). Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. Annual Review of Environment & Resources. 28: 205-241.

May, J. (1995) “Policies on Population, Land Use, and Environment in Rwanda,” Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol. 16, No. 4: 321-334.

Moran, E.F. (1992). Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, Occassional Paper No. 10, Series on Environment and Development, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Queen, G., Ross, E. W., Gibson, R., & Vinson, K. D.  “I participate, you participate, we participate...they profit, but let's change things”: Building a K-16 movement for progressive educational reform. Workplace: A Journal of Academic Labor, 5(2) (2003).

Shapiro, D. (1995). “Population Growth, Changing Agricultural Practices, and Environmental Degradation in Zaire,” Population and Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3: 221-236.

Taylor, M.J., K. Awadzi, and N. Biritwum (2009). Onchocerciasis Control: Vision for the Future from a Ghanaian perspective. Retrieved on January 30^th 2013, from http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/2/1/7

United Nations Center for Human Settlements (2006). Habitat Report on the State of the Worlds Cities and Cities in the Globalizing World. Istanbul, Elsevier publications.