A CURSORY GLANCE AT ON-STREET PARKING: THE WAY FORWARD!

1.1  Introduction:

The issue of transportation development is at the heart of every nation. Due to economic activities in city centers, various spaces have been created outside and along streets as a parking facility for automobiles. Currently, traffic congestion and parking problems in urban areas are getting out of hand in many developing countries. In Ghana, decision makers in most cases favour removal of on-street parking from major arterials. They argue that this action might increase road capacity and improve safety. On the other hand, arguments for allowing on-street parking have traditionally been based on the potential benefits to local merchants. Innes et al (1990) agrees with the latter by stating that accessibility and parking convenience are among major factors that affect shoppers' destination choices. 

Recently, city authorities in Ghana face challenges in the areas of parking infrastructure availability, parking demand, safety problems of vehicles and pedestrians, time and turnover, pricing for parking and maintenance of infrastructure. These and many other challenges make on-street parking a major ‘headache’ and therefore call for answers in terms of its management. The key objective of this exposé is to expound some effects of on-street parking and identify measures to manage on-street parking.

1.2 Effects of On-Street Parking:

There are benefits of on-street parking. Litman (2006) explained that aside the convenience, on-street parking is said to be one of the best ways to provide shared parking. It is thought to be in higher demand than the alternative off-street spaces and considered more efficient as a result of higher occupancy rates. For that reason, pricing proponents such as Shoup suggest setting the highest fees for the on-street spaces (Shoup, 2004). During one of Los Angeles’ on-street parking bans, the city started to find a noticeable decline in retail business (Jakle and Sculle, 2004). Without the on-street parking spaces, the convenience factor appeared to diminish and people shopped elsewhere.

On-street parking is also considered to be more efficient with regard to land use because on-street spaces do not require access lanes or driveways (Litman, 2006). Comparing the amount of land required for an off-street surface lot to that needed for an on-street parking space, Litman (2006) and Shoup (2004) both estimate that the access lanes and driveways to the off-street parking lots is more than double the amount of land devoted to parking. In addition, landscaping requirements generally account for adding another 10% to 15% of total land area to a parking lot (Litman, 2006).

There is a strong argument that convenient parking fosters economic growth and development. The placement of on-street parking near businesses and retail uses improves accessibility and convenience to customers and has been used as a strategy for revitalization of central business districts and attraction of renewed consumer patronage to downtown areas. A number of behavioural studies cited availability of parking as a factor affecting shoppers' travel decisions. For example, an analysis of shoppers' behavioural patterns used data from Fredericton, Canada and a binary logit disaggregate behavioural model to determine the major factors affecting shoppers' destination choices. The study revealed that the availability of parking and the accessibility to the shopping area were among the most important factors in trip decision-making (Innes et al, 1990).

On-street parking is a potential traffic calming measure. Urban planners promoting new urbanism and neo-traditional street designs, as well as advocates of livable and walkable communities and proponents of traffic calming all agree that the use of on-street parking can have many benefits. On-street parking is viewed as part of the strategy to reduce motorists speeding through increased side friction. Replacement of traffic lanes by parking lanes, or reduction of traffic lane widths to allow for on-street parking show reduction in motorists speeds and better compliance with posted speed limits. Moreover, alternating of on-street parking from one side of the road to another can create a chicane-like effect in residential settings. According to Ewing (1999), this technique is a proven traffic calming measure that can reduce travel speed and result in benefits similar to those of actual chicanes at a fraction of the cost.

Among other benefits, properly designed and placed on-street parking is viewed as a means to create conditions where large vehicles can use the added space at intersections to improve their effective turning radii. Sight lines are preserved at intersections with 30- to 50-foot parking setbacks from intersecting legs (Burden, 1999). 

On-street parking cannot be said to have only positive effects. Some of the negative effects are that, firstly, substitution of a road lane by a parking lane has an important impact on capacity and a potential effect on traffic operations. This is expected to be the case when on-street parking is introduced to the state trunk line system. On-street parking limits street capacity in two ways. Firstly, it pre-empts lanes that otherwise would be used by moving traffic. Secondly, parking and un-parking maneuvers frequently reduce the capacity of the adjacent lanes. Even a single vehicle parked within a curb lane can effectively close the lane to moving traffic. At higher speeds and during periods of heavy traffic movement, on-street parking is incompatible with arterial street service and should not be permitted (AASHTO, 1994).

Furthermore, emergency vehicle access in some way is affected by on-street parking. On-street parking constitutes a serious emergency hazard wherever cars block fire hydrants or obstruct fire apparatus. Parking restrictions in the vicinity of fire stations and fire hydrants are essential public safety requirements. When placement of on-street parking is necessary or desirable, available street space must meet requirements for emergency vehicle maneuvering and fire hose laying (Chick, 1996).

1.3 Regulatory Measures for On-Street Parking:

Since on-street parking is a vital component especially in economic growth and development in a commercial area but at the same time can cause havoc if not properly managed, there is the need to put in place some regulatory mechanisms. On-street parking management approaches include: pricing actions, marketing initiatives, and enforcement and adjudication programs (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1980). On-street parking is controlled (paid) when it is required as a parking management measure (Palmer and Ferris, 2010). That is, on-street parking pricing in is done so that most drivers park there for short term errands while parking for long hours is to be done off-street. 

On-street parking restrictions are effective only if they are properly enforced.  Thus, strong and active enforcement and adjudication programs are essential. On-street parking enforcement should be considered as a sub-system of the total parking management system that aims at improving use of existing parking supply, increasing revenues, improving public and traffic safety, and enhancing quality of life and business climate. Enforcement tactics, such as aggressive ticketing, towing, and booting illegally on-street parked vehicles, have been used in many communities around the nation (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1981).

When talking about parking there is no way the issue of parking meter can be overlooked. Parking meter is an instrument where money is placed before using a parking facility and this could be manual or automatic. This metered parking is normally for short term but it all depends on the parking charges which will determine whether users can afford to pay extra charges or not thence time for parking (short or long) can be defined. 

 

The strategies for managing on-street parking are enormous and cut across other parking needs simply because they work hand in hand to give an effective and efficient parking management. According to Litman (2006), the following regulatory mechanisms can be put in place for effective and efficient on-street parking management:

•  Increase enforcement of regulations that are friendly and fair during some periods of the day.

•  Reduce on-street parking time limits. This will increase turnover and also free up the area for other users to access it.

• Encourage businesses to share parking facilities. For example, an office building can use the parking spaces during the day and for the cinema hall also to use it during the night.

• Encourage the use of alternative modes. Example, park and ride where people will park and join shuttle service to the commercial area.

• Establish high standards for parking facility design, including aesthetic features and user and environmental safety.

On-street parking space is a scarce resource, thus, priorities for its use should be established in the public interest. Managing scarce parking resources means determining if and how parking should be regulated, ensuring adequate compliance with regulations, and following up on those who do not comply. 

Parking management policies generate a variety of quantitative and qualitative impacts related to transportation, development, the environment, neighborhood, and revenue that should be carefully considered. For example, increasing short-term on-street parking while decreasing long-term parking may attract additional short-term parkers and constrain long-term parking, promote transit patronage among long-term parkers, improve highway level of service and air quality, reduce energy consumption, and promote economic growth through increased retail sales. Depending upon the actual new mix of short- and long-term parkers, parking revenue may either increase or decrease.

1.4 CONCLUSION:

On-street parking space represents a valuable resource. Thus, on-street parking is very important in every society especially where commercial activities go on along the road. This is because where on-street parking spaces are provided, motorists can park their vehicles and carry out their shopping activities conveniently. However, on-street parking if not properly managed can cause congestion especially when vehicles are parked at illegal places on the road. This can pose safety problems to all road users since moving vehicles can crash with the illegally parked vehicles or knock pedestrians down when crossing the road due to the blockage of their view by the parked vehicles. The congestion created by the illegally parked vehicles on the street and other factors can have multiplier effects such as delays to people, freight and vehicles, high operating cost of vehicles, pollution, environmental degradation, casualties and accidents, loss of productive hours, low economic development and low standard of living in the long run.

On the other hand, when congestion management strategies are put in place such as strict enforcement of laws, road pricing, parking pricing, road capacity expansion, transit improvement and rideshare programs, the negative effects of on-street parking will be reduced to the barest minimum. When this is done, the road will be free from heavy congestion and normal activities of people can be carried out with ease.

Reference:

AASHTO (1994): A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. Washington, D.C.

Burden, D. et al. (1999):  Street  Design  Guidelines  for Healthy  Neighborhoods. Florida, Center for Livable Communities, High Springs.

Chick, C. (1996): On-Street Parking: A Guide to Practice. London, U.K, Landor Publishing.

Ewing, R. (1990):  Traffic  Calming - State  of  the  Practice.  Prepared   by  ITE  for U.S. Department of Transportation.

Innes, D., Ircha, M.C., and Badoe, D.A. (1990): Factors Affecting Automobile Shopping TripDestinations. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, Vol. 116, No. 3, pp. 126-136.

Jakle, J., and Sculle, K. (2004): Lots of Parking. Charlottesville, University of Virginia Press.

Litman, T. (2006):  Parking  Management  Best  Practices.  Chicago,  American  Planning Association.  

Palmer, D and Ferris, C (2010):  Parking  Measures  and  Policies  Research Review.  Geoff

Dawe, Department for Transport, Transport Research Laboratory.

Shoup, D. (2004): The Ideal Source of Local Public Revenue. Regional Science and Urban Economics, Vol. 34, 2004.

U.S. Department of Transportation (1980): Study of Parking Management Tactics Vol. 1. U.S.A.

U.S. Department of Transportation (1981): Study of Parking Management Tactics Vol. 3. U.S.A.